Future research questions regarding mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) may include:

1. Conducting more rigorous effectiveness studies that incorporate both clinical outcomes and implementation outcomes to better understand the degree to which MBIs are effective for pain management across diverse patient populations and settings.
2. Evaluating implementation outcomes such as reach, adoption, implementation fidelity, and sustainability to understand how much and how well MBIs are being delivered in real-world healthcare contexts.
3. Examining the relationship between implementation quality (including dosage, fidelity, and provider training) and clinical effectiveness to identify optimal delivery parameters for MBIs in pain management.